PERFUME
History
Perfume was first used by
the Egyptians as part of their religious rituals. The two principal methods of
use at this time was the burning of incense and the application of balms and
ointments.
Perfumed oils were applied
to the skin for either cosmetic or medicinal purposes. During the Old and
Middle Kingdoms, perfumes were reserved exclusively for religious rituals such
as cleansing ceremonies. Then during the New Kingdom (1580-1085 BC) they were
used during festivals and Egyptian women also used perfumed creams and oils as
toiletries and cosmetics and as preludes to love-making.
The use of perfume then
spread to Greece, Rome, and the Islamic world. And it was the Islamic community
that kept the use of perfumes since the spread of Christianity led to a decline
in the use of perfume. With the fall of the Roman Empire, perfume's influence
dwindled. It was not until the twelfth century and the development of
international trade that this decline was reversed.
Perfume enjoyed huge success
during the seventeenth century. Perfumed gloves became popular in France and in
1656, the guild of glove and perfume-makers was established. The use of perfume
in France grew steadily. The court of Louis XV was even named "the
perfumed court" due to the scents which were applied daily not only to the
skin but also to clothing, fans and furniture. The eighteenth century saw a
revolutionary advance in perfumery with the invention of eau de Cologne.
This refreshing blend of
rosemary, neroli, bergamot and lemon was used in a multitude of different ways:
diluted in bath water, mixed with wine, eaten on a sugar lump, as a mouthwash,
an enema or an ingredient for a poultice, injected directly... and so on. The
variety of eighteenth-century perfume containers was as wide as that of the
fragrances and their uses. Sponges soaked in scented vinaigres de toilette were
kept in gilded metal vinaigrettes. Liquid perfumes came in beautiful Louis
XIV-style pear-shaped bottles. Glass became increasingly popular, particularly
in France with the opening of the Baccarat factory in 1765. As with industry
and the arts, perfume was to undergo profound change in the nineteenth century.
Changing tastes and the
development of modern chemistry laid the foundations of perfumery as we know it
today. Alchemy gave way to chemistry and new fragrances were created. The
French Revolution had in no way diminished the taste for perfume, there was
even a fragrance called "Parfum a la Guillotine." Under the post-revolutionary
government, people once again dared to express a penchant for luxury goods,
including perfume. A profusion of vanity boxes containing perfumes appeared in
the 19th century.
Due to its jasmine, rose and
orange-growing trades, the town of Grasse in Provence established itself as the
largest production center for raw materials. The statutes of the perfume-makers
of Grasse were passed in 1724. Paris became the commercial counterpart to
Grasse and the world center of perfume. Perfume houses such as Houbigant
(Quelques Fleurs, still very popular today), Lubin, Roger & Gallet, and
Guerlain were all based in Paris. In 1760, in London, James Henry Creed founded
the House of Creed perfume.
With the turn of the century
fragrance houses emerged in Europe. The Crown Perfumery was founded in 1872 by
William Sparks Thomson, a maker of crinolines and corsets. Catering to the high
society in London and Europe, he launched a collection of floral fragrances
called Flower Fairies. Queen Victoria granted the Crown Perfumery her own
crown's image to top the fragrance bottles. In 2002 Clive Christian
discontinued the Crown line of fragrances and replaced them with the luxurious
Clive Christian perfume line.
Soon bottling became more
important. Perfume maker Francois Coty formed a partnership with Rene Lalique.
Lalique then produced bottles for Guerlain perfume, D'Orsay, Lubin, Molinard,
Roger & Gallet and others. Baccarat then joined in, producing the bottle
for Mitsouko (Guerlain), Shalimar (Guerlain) and others. Brosse glassworks
created the memorable bottle for Jeanne Lanvin's Arpege perfume, the famous
Chanel No.5, and most recently for Parfums Raffy single note fragrances. Floral
fragrances became more popular in the 20th century. Fracas perfume by Robert
Piguet fragrances was first released in 1948 by master perfumer Germaine
Cellier and is known as the premier Tuberose fragrance.
In 1921- Couturier Gabrielle
Chanel launched her own brand of perfume, created by Ernest Beaux, she calls it
Chanel No.5 because it was the fifth in a line of fragrances Ernest Beaux
presented her. Ernest Beaux was the first perfumer to use aldehydes regularly
in perfumery.
The 1930's saw the arrival
of the leather fragrances, and florals, also became quite popular with the
emergence of Worth's Je Reviens (1932), Caron's Fleurs de Rocaille (1933) and
Jean Patou's Joy perfume (1935). With French perfumery at it's peak in the
1950's, other designers such as Christian Dior, Jacques Fath, Nina Ricci
perfume, Pierre Balmain and so on, started creating their own scents.
The recent popularity of
celebrity fragrances has also made an impact on the industry although most
experts do not expect the trend to last. Today there are over 30,000 designer
perfumes on the market and perfumes are no longer for the wealthy. The perfume
industry has undergone several changes in technique, material and style. All of
which have created the modern fragrance industry, one that still incorporates
creativity, mystique and romance along with marketing to appeal to the masses.
In recent years the
emergence of small and exclusive fragrance brands have been marketed. Known as
niche fragrances, brands such as Amouage, Montale perfume, Xerjoff, Parfumerie
Naturelle, Bois 1920, Odori perfume are bringing back the high quality fine
fragrances of the past perfume artisans. These fragrances contain the finest
oils from all over the world and have revived the passion of perfumery for so
many. Perfume samples are a great way to try these niche fragrances.
The
usage of Parfume in daily life
Use
in Cosmetics
The term
"fragrance" or "parfum" on a cosmetic ingredients list
usually represents a complex mixture of dozens of chemicals. Some 3,000
chemicals are used as fragrances. i Fragrance is an obvious ingredient in
perfumes, colognes, and deodorants, but it's used in nearly every type of
personal care product. Even products marketed as "fragrance-free" or
"unscented" may in fact contain fragrance along with a masking agent
ii that prevents the brain from perceiving odour. In addition to their use in
cosmetics, fragrances are found in numerous other consumer products, notably
laundry detergents and softeners and cleaning products
Health
and Environmental Hazards
Of the thousands of
chemicals used in fragrances, most have not been tested for toxicity, alone or
in combination. Many of these unlisted ingredients are irritants and can
trigger allergies, migraines, and asthma symptoms. A survey of asthmatics found that perfume
and/or colognes triggered attacks in nearly three out of four individuals.
There is also evidence suggesting that exposure to perfume can exacerbate
asthma, and perhaps even contribute to its development in children.
People with multiple
chemical sensitivities (MCS) or environmentally linked illnesses are
particularly vulnerable, with fragrances implicated both in development of the
condition and triggering symptoms.
However, anyone might
experience skin irritation or runny eyes and nose. U.K.researchers have
reported that "perfume" is the second most common cause of allergy in
patients at dermatology clinics. In
addition, in laboratory experiments, individual fragrance ingredients have been
associated with cancer and neurotoxicity among other adverse health effects.
Synthetic musks used in
fragrances are of particular concern from an ecological perspective. Several of
musk compounds are persistent in the environment and build up (bioaccumulate)
in the fatty tissue of aquatic organisms. Measureable levels of synthetic musks
are found in fish in the Great Lakes and the levels in sediment are increasing.
Environment Canada has categorized several synthetic musks as persistent,
bioaccumulative, and/or toxic, and others as human health priorities.
Some fragrance ingredients
are not perfuming agents themselves but enhance the performance of perfuming
agents. For example, diethyl phthalate (prounced tha-late), or DEP, is widely
used in cosmetic fragrances to make the scent linger. Phthalates are choice
ingredients in cosmetics because they are cheap and versatile. However, the
European Commission on Endocrine Disruption has listedDEP as a Category 1
priority substance, based on evidence that it interferes with hormone function.
Phthalates have been linked to early puberty in girls, reduced sperm count in
men, and reproductive defects in the developing male fetus (when the mother is
exposed during pregnancy). Phthalate metabolites are also associated with
obesity and insulin resistance in men. As well, Health Canada notes evidence
suggesting that exposure to phthalates may cause liver and kidney failure in
young children when products containing phthalates are sucked or chewed for
extended periods. DEP is listed as a Priority and Toxic Pollutant under the
U.S. Clean Water Act, based on evidence that it can be toxic to wildlife and
the environment.
Laboratory analysis of
top-selling colognes and perfumes identified an average of 14 chemicals per
product not listed on the label, including multiple chemicals that can trigger
allergic reactions or interfere with hormone function. To learn more, read a
recent report by Environmental Defence.
Regulatory
Status
Fragrance recipes are
considered trade secrets so manufacturers are not required to disclose
fragrance chemicals in the list of ingredients. Environment Canada is currently
assessing one synthetic musk (moskene) under the government's Chemicals
Management Plan and has flagged several others for future assessment. Health
Canada recently announced regulations banning six phthalates in children's toys
(including DEP), but the use of DEP in cosmetics is unrestricted.
International regulations
are stronger. The European Union restricts the use of many fragrance
ingredients, including two common musks (nitromusks) and requires warning
labels on products if they contain any of 26 allergens commonly used as
cosmetic fragrances.
How
The perfume are made in industry ??
Raw
Materials
Natural ingredients—flowers,
grasses, spices, fruit, wood, roots, resins, balsams, leaves, gums, and animal
secretions—as well as resources like alcohol, petrochemicals, coal, and coal
tars are used in the manufacture of perfumes. Some plants, such as lily of the
valley, do not produce oils naturally. In fact, only about 2,000 of the 250,000
known flowering plant species contain these essential oils. Therefore,
synthetic chemicals must be used to re-create the smells of non-oily
substances. Synthetics also create original scents not found in nature.
Some perfume ingredients are
animal products. For example, castor comes from beavers, musk from male deer,
and ambergris from the sperm whale. Animal substances are often used as
fixatives that enable perfume to evaporate slowly and emit odors longer. Other
fixatives include coal tar, mosses, resins, or synthetic chemicals. Alcohol and
sometimes water are used to dilute ingredients in perfumes. It is the ratio of
alcohol to scent that determines whether the perfume is "eau de
toilette" (toilet water) or cologne.
The
Manufacturing Process
Collection
• 1 Before the manufacturing process begins, the initial
ingredients must be brought to the manufacturing center. Plant substances are
harvested from around the world, often hand-picked for their fragrance. Animal
products are obtained by extracting the fatty substances directly from the
animal. Aromatic chemicals used in synthetic perfumes are created in the
laboratory by perfume chemists.
Extraction
Oils are extracted from
plant substances by several methods: steam distillation, solvent extraction,
enfleurage, maceration, and expression.
• 2 In steam distillation, steam is passed through plant
material held in a still, whereby the essential oil turns to gas. This gas is
then passed through tubes, cooled, and liquified. Oils can also be extracted by
boiling plant substances like flower petals in water instead of steaming them.
s then placed
in ethyl alcohol. The oil dissolves in the alcohol and rises. Heat is used to
evaporate the alcohol, which once fully burned off, leaves a higher
concentration of the perfume oil on the bottom.
• 4 During enfleurage, flowers are spread on glass sheets
coated with grease. The glass sheets are placed between wooden frames in tiers.
Then the flowers are removed by hand and changed until the grease has absorbed
their fragrance.
• 5 Maceration is similar to enfleurage except that warmed
fats are used to soak up the flower smell. As in solvent extraction, the grease
and fats are dissolved in alcohol to obtain the essential oils.
• 6 Expression is the oldest and least complex method of
extraction. By this process, now used in obtaining citrus oils from the rind,
the fruit or plant is manually or mechanically pressed until all the oil is
squeezed out.
Blending
• 7 Once the perfume oils are collected, they are ready to
be blended together according to a formula determined by a master in the field,
known as a "nose." It may take as many as 800 different ingredients
and several years to develop the special formula for a scent.
After the scent has been
created, it is mixed with alcohol. The amount of alcohol in a scent can vary
greatly. Most full perfumes are made of about 10-20% perfume oils dissolved in
alcohol and a trace of water. Colognes contain approximately 3-5% oil diluted
in 80-90% alcohol, with water making up about 10%. Toilet water has the least
amount—2% oil in 60-80% alcohol and 20% water.
Aging
• 8 Fine perfume is often aged for several months or even
years after it is blended. Following this, a "nose" will once again
test the perfume to ensure that the correct scent has been achieved. Each
essential oil and perfume has three notes: "Notes de tete," or top
notes, "notes de coeur," central or heart notes, and "notes de
fond," base notes. Top notes have tangy or citrus-like smells; central
notes (aromatic flowers like rose and jasmine) provide body, and base notes
(woody fragrances) provide an enduring fragrance. More "notes," of
various smells, may be further blended.
The
Future
Perfumes today are being
made and used in different ways than in previous centuries. Perfumes are being
manufactured more and more frequently with synthetic chemicals rather than
natural oils. Less concentrated forms of perfume are also becoming increasingly
popular. Combined, these factors decrease the cost of the scents, encouraging
more widespread and frequent, often daily, use.
Using perfume to heal, make
people feel good, and improve relationships between the sexes are the new
frontiers being explored by the industry. The sense of smell is considered a
right brain activity, which rules emotions, memory, and creativity.
Aromatherapy—smelling oils and fragrances to cure physical and emotional
problems—is being revived to help balance hormonal and body energy. The theory
behind aromatherapy states that using essential oils helps bolster the immune
system when inhaled or applied topically. Smelling sweet smells also affects
one's mood and can be used as a form of psychotherapy.
Like aromatherapy, more
research is being conducted to synthesize human perfume—that is, the body
scents we produce to attract or repel other humans. Humans, like other mammals,
release pheromones to attract the opposite sex. New perfumes are being created
to duplicate the effect of pheromones and stimulate sexual arousal receptors in
the brain. Not only may the perfumes of the future help people cover up
"bad" smells, they could improve their physical and emotional
well-being as well as their sex lives.
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